What is soil analysis?

President Rodrigo R. Duterte emphasized the conduct of soil analysis in the country during his first State of the Nation Address (SONA) on July 15, 2016. He said that “we shall also conduct a nationwide soil analysis to determine areas most suitable for rice farming to optimize production with the use of effective soil rehabilitation and fertilization.”

As an effect of this presidential pronouncement, many people including professionals from various academic fields have been wondering what soil analysis is. Several readers of this blog suggested that I write about this topic hence, this article.

Soil analysis refers to the measurement of soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. It is done, depending on the type of soil analysis, for the following purposes: 1) to evaluate the origin and formation of the soil; 2) to assess the level of contamination of the soil; 3) to characterize the soil as a habitat of soil organisms; 4) to assess the soil fertility status, and 5) to evaluate the soil’s suitability for certain crops. Soil analysis is generally synonymous with soil testing. The major steps of soil analysis are soil sampling (and field soil examination) and laboratory analysis.

Soil profile examination and sampling to evaluate the origin of the soil

The first type of soil analysis is the most difficult and complex type. It is carried out by soil specialists called pedologists.  It involves detailed field description of the soil using standard procedures such as the Guidelines for Soil Description (4th edition by Jahn et al., 2006) published by FAO, Rome. Soil description is done on newly dug soil pit at least 1.5m deep or fresh road cuts. The collection of soil samples for intensive laboratory analysis is done on every soil layer (soil horizon) down to the bedrock. Laboratory analyses include the physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties of the soil. Geochemical analysis of rock samples is also necessary.

The second type is conducted by soil scientists interested in soil pollution or contamination. Soil samples are usually collected in areas where soil contamination is suspected. Soil sampling is done at random or at fixed intervals. Only the topsoil layer (0-10 or 0-20 cm) is sampled using a soil auger or a similar sampling tool. Soil samples are analyzed for their contents of soil pollutants (e.g. heavy metals) and are compared with published threshold values to know if the sample is contaminated or not.

Soil sampling to assess the contamination of Taft River in E. Samar

The third type of soil analysis is conducted to know if the soil is favorable for certain soil organisms of interest (e.g. earthworms). This is popular among soil ecologists. Soil samples are collected usually from the topsoil layer and then they are analyzed for soil physical and chemical properties. Correlation analysis is then done between the population of the soil organism and the different soil properties to know which among the soil properties influences the population of the organisms.

The fourth type is the most well-known and commonly done type of soil analysis to support crop production. The main purpose is to know if the soil is fertile or not. Specifically, it is performed to assess, using high-tech laboratory equipment,  if the soil contains sufficient amounts of the essential nutrients required by plants (crops) to grow well and produce good yield (grain, tubers). The essential nutrients that the plant takes up from the soil include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulphur (S), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), boron (B), chlorine (Cl) and nickel (Ni). Since N, P, and K are required by the plant in the largest amounts, these three are usually the nutrients that are of limited supply in the soil. So farmers need to know how much of these nutrients must be applied to the soil through fertilizers. The final result of this type of soil analysis is a fertilizer recommendation.

Soil sampling for fertility evaluation

The fifth and last type of soil analysis is carried out to assess if a certain soil is suitable for crops such as rice, corn, vegetables, fruit trees, and others. This involves field soil examination to know the soil’s texture, structure, drainage, slope, and depth using the methods of the first type of soil analysis. The soil samples are analyzed for soil chemical properties such as soil pH, organic matter content, nutrient holding capacity as well as the amounts of the major nutrients (similar to the third type of soil analysis). The soil properties are then matched with the ecological requirement of the crop. The final result is a suitability map or table showing suitable crops for each soil. It also indicates the soil constraints (or problems) if a crop is grown in soil that is not suitable for that particular crop.

From the president’s pronouncement, it looks like that he meant the fifth type of soil analysis. Due to the tremendous amount of field and laboratory works, it cannot be done by the Bureau of Soil and Water Management alone. It needs the participation of universities with strong soil science program throughout the country such as Central Luzon State University, University of the Philippines Los Banos, Visayas State University, Central Mindanao State University, and University of Southern Mindanao.

Soil science students at VSU performing laboratory analysis of soil samples

The laboratory step of soil analysis or soil testing is tedious, time-consuming, and costly because the chemicals and apparatus required are very expensive. Although there are some rapid soil test kits available, they are not reliable. Also, the laboratory analysis has to be done according to accepted procedures and by trained personnel. Examples of accepted procedures of laboratory analysis of soils are:

Carter M.R. and E.G. Gregorich (Eds.). 2008. Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis (2nd ed). CRC Press, Boca Raton.

International Soil Reference and Information Center (ISRIC). 1995. Procedures for Soil Analysis (L.P. Van Reuwijk, Editor). Wageningen, the Netherlands.

Jones J. B. Jr. 2001. Laboratory Guide for Conducting Soil Tests and Plant Analysis. CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Margesin R. and F. Schinner(Eds.). 2005. Manual for Soil Analysis – Monitoring and Assessing Soil Bioremediation. Springer Verlag, Berlin.

Pansu M. and J. Gautheyrou. 2006. Handbook  of Soil Analysis. Mineralogical, Organic  and Inorganic Methods. Springer Verlag, Berlin.

Schlichting E., H.P. Blume and K. Stahr. 1996. Bodenkundliches Praktikum (Soil Science Practicum). Blackwell Wissenschaftsverlag, Berlin.

Sparks D.L., A.L. Page, P.A. Helmke and R.H. Loeppert (Eds.). 1996. Methods of Soil Analysis Part 3—Chemical Methods. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin.

Westerman R.L. (Ed.). 1990. Soil Testing and Plant Analysis (3rd ed). Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin.

Soil Science professor from Germany given the highest award by Visayas State University

Prof. Dr. Reinhold Jahn, retired professor of soil science and soil protection at Martin Luther University (also known as University of Halle-Wittenberg), Germany was given the highest award called Sandigan Award (Sandigan means someone you can depend upon) of the Visayas State University (VSU), Baybay, Leyte. In a ceremony on 03 August 2016 at the office of the president, University President Edgardo E. Tulin handed the plaque of recognition to Prof. Jahn in the presence of Dr. Wolfreda T. Alesna, Chairperson of the Awards Committee and several faculty, staff, and students of the Department of Soil Science of VSU.

Prof. Reinhold Jahn receiving the Sandigan Award from Univ President Edgardo E. Tulin

Prof. Jahn was recognized “for his invaluable contributions to the Visayas State University. Since 1995 until his retirement in 2012, Prof. Jahn initiated exchange of students between his faculty in Halle and VSU. He mentored and served as host professor to some VSU academic staff and students who conducted short- and long-term researches in his institute. He strongly supported by serving as resource person and lecturer the 13 editions of the international ecology seminar-workshops co-organized by VSU, University of Hohenheim, and the University of Halle-Wittenberg. During his many scientific visits to VSU in the last 20 years, he conducted several seminars and field works for graduate and undergraduate students of soil science and tropical ecology. Finally, the pioneering pedological-ecological researches on the volcanic soils of Leyte that he and his VSU colleagues have conducted and the international publications they published particularly the Guidelines for Soil Description published in several languages by the FAO of the United Nations and which bears the seal of VSU on its cover have brought international prestige to the university.”

Field work at Lake Danao with participants of the international training on soil examination (2006)

Prof. Jahn obtained his Diplom (MSc) from the Technical University of Berlin, his PhD and Habilitation degrees from the University of Hohenheim under Prof. Karl Stahr. He authored or co-authored several books and more than a hundred papers in international journals which have been cited more than 2,000 times (Source: Google Scholar). He has conducted research projects in Germany, Spain, various parts of Africa, China, Indonesia and the Philippines.  He was elected chairman of various commissions in the German Society of Soil Science and the International Union of Soil Sciences.

During a soil excursion to Southern Leyte with graduate students (2009)

The formal awarding ceremony, which Prof. Jahn was not able to attend, was held at the VSU Gym on 10 August 2016 as one of the highlights of the 92nd Anniversary Celebrations of the university. 

The “Scheffer/Schachtschabel Soil Science” Textbook

The Scheffer/Schachtschabel Lehrbuch der Bodenkunde (Textbook of Soil Science), the renowned standard textbook on soil science in German-speaking countries such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, is now available in English for the first time.  The first edition of this highly cited book was published in 1937 under the title “Agrikulturchemie, Teil A: Boden” (Agricultural Chemistry, Part A: Soil). 

Based on the 16^th  German edition which was written by a team of leading soil scientists (all renowned professors of soil science), the 2016 English edition was published by Springer Verlag, so it is available globally. I really applaud this development since I have always admired and used this book since the time I was a doctoral student in Stuttgart-Hohenheim many years ago and until now as a professor of soil science at Visayas State University. I remember I read the 10^th German edition several times, from cover to cover, in preparation for my comprehensive examination under Prof. K. Stahr. In my opinion, this is among the best, if not the best, soil science textbook for undergraduate and graduate students available today.  It is also an excellent reference for soil researchers. I have already bought an electronic copy of the book and I highly recommend it to all those interested in learning soil science.

You can also find an article about this book which I wrote in 2012 for the Bulletin of the International Union of Soil Sciences. At that time I was asked by the editor of the bulletin to name my top three soil science books.

The origin of the catena concept

The catena concept in soil science comes from the Latin word “catena” which means chain. So it is a chain of soils linked by topography. It also refers to a sequence of soils in different positions in the landscape. It was introduced to the scientific literature by Geoffrey Milne (1898-1942) in a paper entitled “Some suggested units of classification and mapping particularly for East African soils” published in Soil Research-Bodenkundliche Forschung, Supplement to the Proceedings of the International Union of Soil Science Vol. IV No. 3 (1935), pp: 183-198. He noted “the regular repetition of a certain sequence of soil profiles in association with topography” in East Africa which was also observed earlier (in 1911 and 1912) by the German Peter Vageler. Milne wrote that "a distinctive word is needed in referring to this phenomenon" hence, he proposed the word catena.

Ernst Schlichting (1923-1988) who was a professor at the University of Hohenheim in Stuttgart pioneered the approach of considering the soil always as part of the landscape. He proposed that soils in different positions in the catena exchange materials through transport processes and thus could be compared to the transfer processes between horizons in a soil profile. He and his students have shown that the downward transport of solids or solutions may lead to a direct or indirect linkage between catena elements (Sommer and Schlichting, 1997; see above figure). In Schlichting’s view, the genesis of soil can only be understood if its relation to the other soils in the catena is taken into consideration.

Typical catena in the volcanic areas of Leyte, Philippines

Catena is now also widely used in other sciences particularly ecology albeit with a slightly different meaning (e.g. a catena of terrestrial ecosystems).

Hohenheimer Bodenkundliche Hefte: 20 years of publishing original soil research

The Hohenheimer Bodenkundliche Hefte (ISSN 0942-0754) or Hohenheim Soil Science Book Series will be 20 years old in 2012. Since the release in 1992 of Volume 1 with the title “Stickstoff-Dynamik in Catenen einer erosionsgepraegten Loesslandschaft by G. Lorenz” (Nitrogen dynamics in catenas of an erosion-affected loess landscape), it has already published a hundred volumes of original and relevant soil research. Volume 100 which came out last year (2011), was authored by Shabnam Rathore and carried the title “Assessment of biomass production potential on salt affected land: a soil and terrain database case study (SASOTER) in Badin District, South of Pakistan.”

Published by the renowned Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation of the University of Hohenheim in Stuttgart, Germany, this book series publishes dissertations and habilitations carried out at the Institute. During its early years, it was edited by Prof. U. Babel (Soil Biology), Prof. W.R. Fischer (Soil Chemistry), Prof. K. Roth (Soil Physics), and Prof. K. Stahr (Soil Science and Petrography). The present editors are Prof. E Kandeler (Soil Biology), Prof. Y. Kuzyakov (Soil Biogeochemistry), Prof. K. Stahr (Soil Science and Petrography) and Prof. T. Streck (Soil biogeophysics), all internationally well-known soil scientists and authors at the Institute.

In its 20 years of existence, the Hohenheimer Bodenkundliche Hefte has clearly established itself as an important publication in soil science. As can be seen from Google Scholar, many of the titles published in the book series have been cited by papers in various prestigious international journals and books. Vol. 36 on dust deposition of soils in West Africa by Dr. Ludger Herrmann has been the most frequently cited volume of the book series.

World Soil Day

December 05 of every year is celebrated as World Soil Day by the global community of more than 60,000 soil scientists. According to the official IUSS website, World Soil Day is held on the said date since it is the birthday of H.M. King Bhumibol Adulyadej, The King of Thailand, who has officially sanctioned the event.

As a tribute to the soil as a vital resource, I am posting below a poem written in 2007 by one of my former students at Visayas State University, Juvia P. Sueta. Juvy is now finishing her PhD at the Buesgen Institute, University of Goettingen, Germany.

The Soil Beneath

by Juvia P. Sueta

The soil tells a

fascinating story

of enduring patience

and great beauty.

Out of the hardened rock,

it changes into

an interesting mass

of sand, silt, and clay.

Exposed to the rain, wind

and sunshine, it

grows to maturity.

Time polished it,

throughout all history.

Out of its bosom,

the flowers bloom

and trees grow steadily.

And in its face,

the children play.

Below it;

scholars, artists,

beggars, and poets lay.

Great is the earth,

it cares and nourishes

the whole humanity.

It is nature’s best habitat,

sustaining creatures,

strong or tiny.

It bears witness,

to all that took place

throughout the ages.

It holds the secrets

of past or future events.

it is a treasure chest,

keeping nature’s wealth.

And so nothing compares

to the soil beneath.

Report on the 14th PSSST Scientific Conference held at VSU, Baybay, Leyte

The 14th Annual Meeting and Scientific Conference of the Philippine Society of Soil Science and Technology (PSSST) was held at the Visayas State University (VSU) in Baybay City, Leyte last 25-27 May 2011. About 140 soil scientists, soil practitioners, and agriculturists working in universities, government agencies, non-government organizations, and private companies throughout the country attended the conference.

The opening program was graced by Dr. Florentino Tesoro who represented Congressman Angelo B. Palmones (AGHAM Partylist), Dr. Jose L. Bacusmo (VSU President), Prof. K. Stahr (Germany), Mr. Deogracias Pernites (representing Mayor Carmen Cari of Baybay City), Dr. Cezar Mamaril (PSSST Adviser), Dr. Eduardo Paningbatan (PSSST Adviser), Ms. Constancia Mangao (PSSST President) and Dr. Victor B. Asio (Dean of the College of Agriculture, VSU).

Prof. Dr. Karl Stahr, the Chairman of Division I of the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), gave the keynote lecture about the limestone soils in Southeast Asia particularly Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. Dr. Gamini Keerthisinghe of the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) gave a plenary paper on challenges to sustainable crop production.

A total of 26 oral papers were presented dealing with various soil topics ranging from fertilization to soil characterization and geospatial modeling. In addition, 25 poster papers were presented. The presenters of the best oral and poster papers were awarded with certificates and cash.

In the afternoon of the last day of the conference, a post-conference tour was organized and sponsored by the Department of Agronomy and Soil Science of VSU to Lake Danao located at 630 m ASL in the central highlands of Leyte. On the way to the lake, the participants were able to see the following: 1) the City of Ormoc; 2) the mouth and headwater of Anilao River which caused the tragic flooding of Ormoc City in 1991 killing 8,000 people; 3) the volcanic landscape which was traditionally used for large-scale sugarcane production; 4) the 1,912 ha Lake Danao along the Philippine Fault Line; 5) an Andisol soil profile (Typic Hapludand); and 6) the Tongonan Geothermal Plant, one of the largest in Asia.

Overall, the conference was a great success. The attendance of Prof. Stahr from the University of Hohenheim in Germany and Dr. Keerthisinghe from ACIAR in Australia gave the conference an international standing especially since Prof. Stahr represented the IUSS of which PSSST is a member.

The Department of Agronomy and Soil Science of VSU which co-hosted the conference, is grateful to the VSU president for the encouragement and support, and the officers and advisers particularly Dr. Cezar Mamaril of PSSST for bringing the conference to VSU.

A report on this conference has been published in the IUSS Bulletin Vol. 119 (Dec 2011 issue)

(All photos were taken by Glenn Largo)

Soil Science is also called pedology

In American soil science, pedology (pedo is Greek for ground or soil) has recently been made as a subdiscipline that deals with soil morphology, genesis and classification. In other parts of the world, however, particularly in non-English speaking countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa soil science has remained synonymous with pedology (Bech, 2006). Historically, pedology was the original term for the scientific study of the soil introduced by Fallou and it was only in 1924 during the planning for the first international congress that the term soil science was introduced as a synonym. This was in fact reflected in the paper that Glinka presented during the congress (Glinka, 1927).

Until today many textbooks, scientific journals, and academic departments dealing with soil science in non-English speaking countries bear the name pedology. In 2002, there was an internet debate among some members of the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) about the term pedology. While many North Americans who joined the debate strongly argued for the use of pedology as a branch of soil science, most soil scientists from Europe (e.g. the world-renown R. Dudal from Belgium) and other parts of the world maintained that pedology is synonymous to soil science and is not a subdiscipline. Because of the disagreement, pedology was not used as a subdiscipline in the IUSS,

The traditional branches of soil science include soil chemistry, soil biology and biochemistry, soil physics, soil mineralogy, soil genesis, survey and classification, soil conservation, and soil fertility. Many soil scientists at present are experts of new emerging fields of soil science like hydropedology (interaction between hydrosphere and pedosphere), landscape pedology (role of soil in landscape processes), ecopedology (role of soil in terrestrial ecosystems), soil biogeochemistry (how biological and geochemical processes in soils affect element cycle), pedometrics (use of mathematical and statistical tools to interpret and analyze soil data), soil geography (local, regional and global distribution of soils), soil protection, and soil science history.

References
Bech, J. 2006. Eupedology: a solution to a controversy. IUSS Bulletin 109: 27-30.
Glinka, K.D. 1927. Dokuchaiev’s ideas in the development of pedology and cognate sciences. Trans. First Intern Congr. Soil Sci., Wisconsin, vol. 1, pp: 116-135

Leading Soil Scientist is Keynote Speaker of the 14th PSSST Conference in May 2011

Prof. Dr. KARL STAHR, Chairman of Division I (Soil in Space and Time) of the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), the global association of soil scientists, has accepted our invitation to be the Keynote Speaker of the 14th PSSST Scientific Conference on 25-27 May 2011 at VSU, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.

Prof. Stahr gained his doctorate from the Technical University Stuttgart, Germany, in 1972 and his Habilitation (highest academic qualification required to become a professor in Germany and several other European countries) in Soil Science at the University of Freiburg in 1979. Since 1988 he is Professor of Soil Science and Petrography at the Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart. His main fields of research are: soil genesis, soil mineralogy, land evaluation, N-cycle, and recycling of organic waste. He has conducted research projects dealing with forest and agricultural soils of Germany as well as Brazil, Ecuador, Argentina, Spain, Portugal, Egypt, Israel, Turkey, PR China, Somalia, Niger, Benin, Vietnam, Thailand, and Philippines.

Prof. Stahr has been actively involved in a wide range of professional activities serving as: Vice Chairman (1979-1981, 1985-1989) and Chairman (1989-1995) of Commission VII of the German Soil Science Society, Vice Chairman of Commission VII of the International Soil Science Society (1986-1998), and President of the German Soil Science Society from 1998 to 2001. He has organized several national and international workshops, excursions and congresses.He has been elected member of many University boards since 1967 such as Dean of the Faculty of Landscape Planning, Technical University of Berlin (1987/88), Dean of the Faculty of Plant Production and Landscape Ecology, University of Hohenheim (2000-2002) and as Vice Dean of the same faculty since 2002. He also serves as Chairman of the special research project "Uplands Program 564" of the University of Hohenheim since 2005.

He has authored and co-authored hundreds of papers which appeared in prestigious peer-reviewed international journals as well as several influential textbooks in soil science (in German). He is in the Editorial Boards of Catena, Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, Geoderma, Trends in Soil Science, and Hohenheimer Bodenkundliche Hefte.

Prof. Stahr has supervised close to a hundred PhD students from many countries around the world.

Favorite and influential soil science books

Below is my short article which appeared in the IUSS Bulletin 117 (Nov 2010) and 118 (June 2011) under the title "Favorite Soil Science Books."

Soil science is a rapidly growing ecological earth science. Consequently, the number of books on the subject has greatly increased in the last two decades. So to choose my top three soil science books, I thought of this criterion: the book must have been very useful to me when I was a student and it is still useful now in my research and teaching activities as a professor of soil science. The criterion automatically disqualifies some very good books that I used as a student but for various reasons I seldom or do not use them today as well as some outstanding soil science books published in recent years but were not yet available during my student days.

My first choice is the Properties and Management of Soils in the Tropics by Pedro A. Sanchez published in 1976 by John Wiley and Sons. It discusses in a simple but in-depth manner the tropical environment (climate, vegetation types, geology, land use and farming systems); the classification of tropical soils using Soil Taxonomy, FAO and some other important systems; the physical and chemical properties, clay mineralogy, and exchange processes of tropical soils; soil acidity and liming; soil nutrients and fertility evaluations; and soil management under different tropical land use systems. This outstanding book certainly belongs to the most important and influential books on tropical soils. I still use it regularly and even require my graduate students to read certain parts of it.

My second choice is Tropical Soils. A Comprehensive Study of their Genesis by E.C.J. Mohr, F.A. van Baren, and J. van Schuylenborgh (3rd revised edition) published in 1972 by Mouton-Ichtiar Baru-Van Hoeve. The book has three parts. Part I deals on the fundamentals of climate, rock and mineral weathering, and organic matter transformation. Part II discusses oxisols, leteritic soils, podzolic soils and podzols, vertisols, paddy soils, and andosols. Part III covers the experimental and physico-chemical study of soil-forming processes. I find it an excellent and unique book on tropical soils because of the coverage and details in which the topics are presented. It has been very useful to me especially during my masteral and doctoral studies (we used it for the course on tropical soils in Hohenheim). I still consult this book often which is an important part of my personal library.

My third choice is the standard soil science textbook in German-speaking countries, the Scheffer/Schachtschabel Lehrbuch der Bodenkunde (Textbook of Soil Science) now in its 16th edition (Spektrum Academisches Verlag). The book has undergone several revisions under different teams of authors. The latest edition was prepared by H.P. Blume, G.W. Bruemmer, R. Horn, E, Kandeler, I. Koegel-Knabner, R. Kretzschmar, K. Stahr, and B.M. Wilke, all leading soil scientists. It covers the origin and development of soils; physical, biological and chemical properties of and processes in soils; nutrients and contaminants; soil systematics and geography; soils and soil landscapes of Europe and the world; soil evaluation and protection. It is an excellent textbook for students who understand German. I find it also a vital reference for my research and teaching activities.

Soil excursion to Southern Leyte, Philippines with Prof. R Jahn

On 09 April 2010, we organized a soil excursion to Southern Leyte for selected graduate students pursuing MSc degree in Soil Science at the Department of Agronomy and Soil Science of Visayas State University in Baybay, Leyte. The main objective of the activity was to observe the important soils of the province.

Prof. Dr. Reinhold Jahn of Martin Luther University (Germany), former Chairman of the Soil Geography Commission of the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), served as the resource person. The participants included Grace Enojada, Marilou Sarong, Katrina Piamonte, Deejay Maranguit, Glenn Largo, and Raffy Rodrigo.

The group first focused on the young soils in the alluvial plains which are generally used for lowland rice production. Prof. Jahn discussed the important features of paddy (rice) soils particularly gleying, mottling, and the occurrence of plow pan.

During his recent fieldwork in the Banaue rice terraces in northern Luzon, Prof. Jahn noted that plow pan is generally absent in the rice terraces since puddling is not part of the normal cultural management practices there. Puddling is the process of destroying the structure of rice soil by cultivating it when it is wet in order to homogenize the soil and to produce a watertight soil paste to hold water on the soil surface.

In the mountainous portion of Southern Leyte, highly weathered soils (Ultisols) that developed from basalt and other igneous rocks are widespread. The group examined a Ultisol soil profile that was very deep and heavy clay, and which showed the occurrence of mottles and exfoliation weathering of rock in the lower portion of the profile. Ultisols are acidic, clayey, and have generally low nutrient status. They are the most widespread soils in the Philippines.

The group also found a very beautiful soil profile of a Ultisol near the town of Silago. It formed from two parent materials (bisequm) and clearly showed lithologic discontinuity (i.e. the heterogeneity of the parent rock material).

Brief history and current state of soil science in the Philippines

First published June 2009. Revised November 2016.

Philippine soil science owes its early development to the Americans. The first soil survey was conducted by C. W. Dorsey an American soil surveyor in 1903. In 1921 a Division of Soil and Fertilizer was created under the Bureau of Science which in 1934 was renamed as Division of Soil Survey. In 1951, the Philippine Congress enacted Republic Act No. 622 organizing the Bureau of Soil Conservation with Dr. M. M. Alicante as its first director (BSWM, 2008). Teaching of soil science to students of agricultural science started as early as the 1920s at the University of the Philippines College of Agriculture (UPCA). R. L. Pendleton an American from California was one of the pioneer soil science instructors who taught from 1923 to 1935. Dr. Pendleton was also an outstanding researcher as reflected by the about 50 scientific papers he published (Pendleton, 1942; Carter, 1958).

Until about the 1960s, much of the work of soil scientists in the Bureau of Soil Conservation (which became Bureau of Soils in 1957) was on soil survey and mapping of soil series in the entire archipelago as well as in promoting soil conservation practices. Because of the major role that soil science played in the green revolution, Philippine soil science enjoyed rapid development in the 1970s and 1980s ("golden age") primarily due to the massive faculty development at the University of the Philippines at Los Banos (UPLB) wherein young faculty members were sent abroad primarily to the U.S.A. for graduate studies, and to the world class soil research that was at the time brewing at the nearby International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) thanks largely to Nyle C. Brady.

N.C. Brady (Source: Facebook.com)

NC Brady of Cornell University who taught at UPCA (now UPLB) as Cornell visiting professor after the war returned to Los Banos in 1973 as the third director general of IRRI and remained there until 1981. During Brady's time (and until now), many leading soil scientists from around the world visited or conducted research at IRRI. Some of the internationally well-known soil scientists who worked at IRRI included P.A. Roger (France), H.U. Neue and H.W. Scharpenseel (Germany), F.N. Ponnamperuma (Sri Lanka), T. Yoshida and I. Watanabe (Japan), N. van Breemen and F. Moormann (Netherlands), D.J. Greenland and G.J.D. Kirk (U.K.), R. Bloom and P.A. Sanchez (USA), and S. Sombatpanit (Thailand). By establishing a world class soil research at IRRI and through his soil science textbook (Nature and Properties of Soils), NC Brady has undoubtedly had a major impact on the development of Philippine soil science.

At UPLB, some of the soil scientists who represented, or were product of, the "golden age" and who became influential teachers included: R.B. Badayos (genesis, survey and classification); I.J. Manguiat  and E.S. Paterno (soil microbiology); G.O. San Valentin (soil mineralogy and soil chemistry); A. A. Briones (soil physics) and E.P. Paningbatan (soil physics and soil conservation); A.M. Briones, D.A. Carandang (soil chemistry); and C. P. Mamaril, H.P. Samonte, W.C. Cosico (soil fertility). Two foreigners also spent a few years teaching soil science at UPLB: Dr. S. Srinilta (soil physics) and Dr. U. Jones (soil fertility).

A special mention must be made of Nicolas L. Galvez, a highly trained and outstanding soil scientist who took charge of developing the Soils Department and of training future Filipino soil scientists at UPCA after the war. N.L. Galvez was the head of the Soils Department from 1948 to 1961 and served UPCA for 42 years. Without doubt, Dr. Galvez had the greatest contribution to Philippine soil science. For this reason, he is widely considered as the "Dean of Filipino Soil Scientists". (A museum has recently been established in his honor at UPLB).

Outside UPLB, examples of soil scientists who also stood out during the 1980s and 1990s were J.B. Dacayo of Central Luzon State University (CLSU), S.S. Magat of Philippine Coconut Authority, R.G. Escalada of VSU who advised more than a hundred undergraduate thesis students in agronomy and soil science (including this writer), and N.B. Inciong of BSWM.

At present, there is a new generation of well-trained soil scientists, many of whom have obtained advanced degrees from prestigious universities in Australia, Japan, Europe, and North America, who are working at various universities, research centers, government agencies, and private organizations throughout the country. Undergraduate/graduate degree programs in soil science are now offered by several universities throughout the country the most important of which are UPLB, CLSU, Benguet State University, Tarlac Agricultural University, and Central Bicol State University of Agriculture in Luzon; Visayas State University or VSU (formerly called ViSCA and LSU) in central Philippines; and University of Southern Mindanao and Central Mindanao University in the southern part of the country. Survey, mapping, and soil fertility evaluation of soils throughout the country are carried out by the Bureau of Soil and Water Management based in Quezon City.

The soil science program at VSU in Baybay, Leyte, deserves a brief mention. Started in the late 1970s, the program has produced graduates who are now successful academics and scientists not only in the Philippines but also in the USA, Europe and Japan. VSU soil scientists have also produced high quality papers which have been published in various international journals. On November 5, 2014, the VSU administration under President Jose L. Bacusmo created the Department of Soil Science from the existing Department of Agronomy and Soil Science. In terms of faculty strength, facilities, and scientific publication, VSU's Department of Soil Science is widely considered as the country's leading soil science department at the moment.*

Finally, Philippine soil science has clearly made major strides in the last three decades but it lags very much behind those in other countries in terms of scientific outputs and professional activities. This is even true for the ASEAN region alone. Regarding scientific outputs, very few papers have been published by Filipino soil scientists in peer-reviewed international journals. In terms of professional activities, the Philippine Society of Soil Science and Technology (PSSST) has not yet been fully recognized by the International Union of Soil Sciences, the global organization of soil scientists. So it cannot be seen in the global map of soil science. There is an increasingly popular view among young soil scientists that basing the PSSST at the BSWM, a non-academic entity, has stifled the development of the organization and of soil science in the country.
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* The two soil scientists (V.B. Asio & I.A. Navarrete) included in the top 450 scientists in the Philippines in 2016 based on scientific citations & h index by Webometrics (http://www.webometrics.info/en/node/148) are from the Department of Soil Science of VSU.


(Note: The article is based on the available historical materials that I have gathered so far. I will revise it when new information becomes available.)

Is soil science in an upswing?

In many countries, soil science has been traditionally associated with agriculture because of the major function of soil as a medium for plant growth. So it was no surprise that the decline in funding for agricultural research worldwide in the last two decades had taken its toll on student enrolment in agricultural sciences including soil science. But there are good signs that soil science is now experiencing an upswing particularly because of its strong link to environmental management and global warming (soil is a major source and sink of carbon) and to recent increased focus on agriculture.

In a recent paper published in Geoderma, Dr. Alfred E. Hartemink of ISRIC in Wageningen, Netherlands, and Prof. Alex McBratney (University of Sydney) think that soil science renaissance (from French word meaning "rebirth") is currentyl taking place "where novel approaches to thought are combined with a revival of ideas from the past." They noted that renewed interest in food, feed, and fuel production and the publication of numerous reports have brought soils back onto the global research agenda.

Recent reports by the United Nations and other international organizations have highlighted the need for up-to-date and fine resolution soil information and the revival of soil research. They cited as examples of key issues that have been discussed in recent publications soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and pollution particularly in relation to environmental degradation, climate change, and world food production. They estimated that about 3.2 billion euro is spent yearly on soil research worldwide. They urge the soil science community to benefit from the current upsurge in soil science.

Reference

Hartemink AE and A McBratney. 2008. A soil science renaissance. Geoderma 148: 123-129.

Soil science is a natural science

Soil science or pedology (pedo is Greek for ground or soil) is a scientific discipline at the meeting point of physical, biological, geological and agricultural sciences. Because soil is a natural body, soil science is a natural science that deals with the study of soil in all its aspects such as genesis, composition, properties, geography, ecology, fertility, degradation and protection. A more specific definition states that soil science is an environmental (or ecological) natural science concerned with the evolution, characterization, function, distribution, management and protection of the soil resource in terrestrial ecosystems.